O trabalho como dispositivo de inclusão e exclusão na criminalidade: uma poção mágica para a oficina do diabo? / Work as a power device in the socio-educational context: a magic potion for the devil's workshop?

Este artigo analisa a atuação do trabalho como dispositivo de inclusão e exclusão na criminalidade, a partir das histórias de vida de um ex-interno do Sistema Socioeducativo e egresso do Sistema Prisional da Região Sudeste do Brasil. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo, por meio do método biográfico, que considerou os relatos da história de vida de um sujeito do gênero masculino. Recolhidos a partir de entrevistas em profundidade, os relatos foram analisados por meio da técnica de análise de conteúdo. Foi possível compreender o trabalho como um dispositivo que paradoxalmente opera tanto na inclusão, quanto na exclusão de um indivíduo na criminalidade. O sujeito é incluído em atividades lícitas, na vida de trabalhador de boa conduta, e simultaneamente na vida de trabalhador-traficante, que pratica atividades ilícitas por meio da criminalidade. O trabalho não atua como uma poção mágica na exclusão da criminalidade; e não cumpre esse papel de salvador para os sujeitos considerados (ex)criminosos. O dispositivo trabalho não pode ser visto como uma panaceia que vai dar conta da fragilidade de tantos outros que atuam na sociedade e por ela são produzidos

This study aims to analyze the role of work as a device for criminality inclusion and exclusion based on the life stories of a former intern in the Brazilian Socio-Educational System who egressed from the Prison System in Southeastern Brazil. This qualitative study used the biographical method, considering a male subject's reports of his life history. Collected from in-depth interviews, reports were analyzed via the content analysis technique. We managed to understand work as a device which paradoxically operates in an individual's inclusion into and exclusion from criminality. The subject is included in lawful activities, in the life of a worker with good conduct, and simultaneously included in the life of a worker-dealer who practices illegal activities via criminality. Work neither acts as a magic potion which excludes crime nor fulfills the role of savior for considered (ex)criminals. We must refrain from seeing the working device as a panacea which will account for the fragility of so many other devices operating in and stemming from society

Encontro com a guerra no Brasil: entre psicanálise, Clausewitz e Foucault / Meeting the war in Brazil: between psychoanalysis, Clausewitz and Foucault / La rencontre avec la guerre au Brésil: entre psychanalyse, Clausewitz et Foucault / Encuentro con la guerra en Brasil: entre el psicoanálisis, Clausewitz y Foucault

Resumo A guerra do tráfico de drogas no Brasil tem ganhado destaque nas pesquisas dentro da psicologia pelo significativo número de mortes relacionadas a este fenômeno. Partindo da descrição dos cinco primeiros dias de encontro entre pesquisadores e adolescentes envolvidos com o fenômeno descrito, pretende-se apontar alguns pontos de aproximação e diferença entre ele e o que é chamado pelo significante "guerra" na filosofia de Clawsewitz e Foucault. Para tanto, foi feita uma descrição do campo, seguida pela problematização, retomando três aportes teóricos: a tese da guerra como continuação da política, de Clausewitz; a inversão feita por Foucault que sustenta o Racismo de Estado; e um aprofundamento psicanalítico sobre as diversas modalidades dos conflitos sob o nome de guerra. Concluindo, essa análise resultou na tese de que existe uma guerra no Brasil como consequência do sistema político excludente, denunciada pelos jovens envolvidos com o tráfico de drogas.

Abstract The 'war on drugs' promoted in Brazil has gained prominence in psychology research due to the ensuing significant number of deaths. By describing the five first meetings held with teenagers, the researchers highlight some similarities and differences between the described phenomenon and what Clausewitz and Foucault call 'war.' To this end, after describing the field research, the paper discusses three theoretical points: Clausewitz's thesis that war is the continuation of politics; Foucault's inversion, which sustain state racism; and an in-depth psychoanalysis of the various forms of conflict under the umbrella-term 'war.' In conclusion, this analysis point out the war going on in Brazil as a consequence of the exclusionary political system, denounced by youths involved in drug trafficking.

Résumé La guerre au trafic de drogues promue au Brésil a pris de l'importance dans la recherche en psychologie en raison du nombre important des décès qu'elle a entraîné. En décrivant les cinq premières réunions tenues avec des adolescents, les chercheurs souligne certaines similitudes et différence entre le phénomène décrit et ce que Clausewitz et Foucault appellent la « guerre ¼. Pour cela, après avoir décrit la recherche, l'article discute de trois points théoriques : la thèse de Clausewitz, selon laquelle la guerre est le prolongement de la politique; l'inversion faite par Foucault, qui soutient le racisme d'État ; et une psychanalyse approfondie des différentes formes de conflit sous le terme générique de « guerre ¼. En conclusion, cette analyse met en évidence la guerre qui se déroule au Brésil comme une conséquence du système politique d'exclusion dénoncé par les jeunes impliqués dans le trafic de drogue.

Resumen La guerra en contra del tráfico de drogas en Brasil ha ganado atención en la investigación en psicología debido al número significativo de muertes relacionadas a este fenómeno. Partiendo de la descripción de los cinco primeros días de encuentro entre investigadores y adolescentes envueltos en el fenómeno descrito, se pretende señalar algunos puntos de aproximación y diferencia entre este y lo que es llamado por el significante "guerra" en la filosofía de Clausewitz y Foucault. Para esto, se llevó a cabo una descripción de campo, seguida por la problematización con tres aportes teóricos: la tesis de la guerra como extensión de la política de Clausewitz; la inversión hecha por Foucault que sustenta el Racismo de Estado; y una profundización psicoanalítica sobre las diversas modalidades de los conflictos bajo el nombre de guerra. En conclusión, este análisis constató la tesis de que existe una guerra en Brasil como consecuencia de un sistema político excluyente, denunciada por los jóvenes envueltos con tráfico de drogas.

The contribution of methamphetamine use to crime: Evidence from Australian longitudinal data.

BACKGROUND: To quantify the extent to which methamphetamine use is associated with increases in crime net of any premorbid risk of criminality among people who use the drug. METHODS: Four one-month data panels from 469 participants dependent on methamphetamine were drawn from the MATES cohort (N = 501). Odds ratios for within-person effects were extracted from a random intercept logistic regression model for crime during periods of methamphetamine use compared to no use. Effects were adjusted for time-varying measures of age, other substance use, and socio-economic disadvantage (income, unemployment and unstable accommodation). Involvement in crime (property crime, drug dealing, fraud, violent crime) and days of methamphetamine in the past month were assessed using the Opiate Treatment Index. RESULTS: Crime was more likely during months when participants used methamphetamine compared to when they did not (OR 13.2 95% CI 8.5-20.6; AOR 4.7 95% CI 2.8-8.0), this reflecting more property crime (OR 10.6 95% CI 6.3-18.0; AOR 5.5 95% CI 2.8-10.8), violent crime (OR 8.2 95% CI 4.2-15.9; AOR 3.4 95% CI 1.5-8.0), fraud (OR 3.4, 95% CI 2.0-5.8; AOR 1.7 95% CI 0.8-3.3) and dealing drugs (OR 18.2 95% CI 10.2-32.5; AOR 5.9 95% CI 3.0-11.9), although the adjusted relationship for fraud was not significant. Effects were dose related. CONCLUSIONS: The use of methamphetamine was associated with significant increases in crime beyond premorbid risk for criminality. Crime is a likely social consequence of methamphetamine use and efforts are needed to reduce this impact.

Hantavirus and criminality: disease and family / Hantavírus e criminalidade: doença e família / Hantavirus y criminalidad: enfermedad y la familia

Background and objectives: Hantavirus is a pathogen that causes a viral disease with an acute and severe presentation, and a high mortality rate. In face of a sudden loss, some families may not conceive the complete absence of the deceased relative. Thus, we sought to understand the changes that took place in a family after the death of the provider by Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS). Methods: A descriptive exploratory study with a qualitative approach of the type case report. Data collection took place between October and December 2016 through recorded individual interviews and using questions about family dynamics after family provider's death of HPS, which were assessed by content analysis in the light of Roy's theory. Results: It was observed that the illness and death of the family patriarch weakened the family's strengths and resources, leading to a period of mourning and despair. In addition, unemployment among other family members worsened socioeconomic conditions, seeing drugs as an alternative for support as it became a commercial activity, and the rise of a command in the region that culminated in the arrest of the wife, two daughters and a son of the deceased. Conclusions: In this case, it was evidenced that the family was weakened due to the illness and death of their loved one by HPS, and because of the lack of support and welcome from the reference social services, they chose to act in criminality and it ended up with the arrest of four members.(AU)

Justificativa e objetivos: O hantavírus é um patógeno que causa uma doença viral com caráter agudo e grave e alta taxa de mortalidade. Em face da perda súbita, algumas famílias podem não conceber a completa ausência do parente falecido. Assim, procuramos entender as mudanças que ocorrem em uma família após a morte do provedor pela Síndrome Pulmonar por Hantavírus (SPH). Métodos: Estudo descritivo-exploratório com abordagem qualitativa do tipo estudo de caso. A coleta de dados ocorreu entre outubro e dezembro de 2016 por meio de entrevistas individuais gravadas e com o uso de perguntas sobre a dinâmica familiar após a morte por SPH, sendo analisadas por análise de conteúdo sob a luz da teoria de Roy. Resultados: Observou-se que a doença e a morte do patriarca fragilizaram as forças e recursos da família, levando a um período de luto e desespero. Além disso, o desemprego entre os demais membros da família agravou as condições socioeconômicas, vendo as drogas como uma alternativa para o apoio, o que assumiu o caráter de comércio e a ascensão de um comando na região que culminou com a prisão da esposa, duas filhas e um filho do falecido. Conclusão: Neste caso descrito foi evidenciado que a família ficou fragilizada diante da enfermidade e óbito do seu ente querido por SPH e, em decorrência da falta de apoio e acolhimento dos serviços de referência sociais, optou por atuar na criminalidade e findar com a prisão de quatro membros.(AU)

Justificación y objetivos: El hantavirus es un patógeno que causa una enfermedad viral con un carácter agudo y grave y alta tasa de mortalidad. Ante la pérdida repentina, algunas familias pueden no concebir la ausencia completa del familiar fallecido. Por lo tanto, tratamos de comprender los cambios que se produjeron en una familia después de la muerte del proveedor por Sindrome Pulmonar por Hantavirus (SPH). Métodos: Estudio descriptivo-exploratorio con enfoque cualitativo del tipo estudio de caso. La recopilación de datos ocurrió entre octubre y diciembre de 2016, a través de entrevistas individuales grabadas y con el uso de preguntas sobre la dinámica familiar después de la muerte por SPH, que se analizaron a través del análisis de contenido a la luz de la teoría de Roy. Resultados: Se observó que la enfermedad y la muerte del patriarca familiar debilitaron las fortalezas y los recursos de la familia, lo que llevó a un período de duelo y desesperación. Además, el desempleo entre otros miembros de la familia empeoró las condiciones socioeconómicas, haciéndolos ver a las drogas como una alternativa de renta, lo que asumió el carácter de un comercio y el surgimiento de un comando en la región que culminó con el arresto de la esposa, dos hijas y un hijo del difunto. Conclusiones: En este caso, se evidenció que la familia se debilitó debido a la enfermedad y la muerte de su ser querido por SPH y debido a la falta de apoyo y recepción de los servicios de referencia social, eligieron actuar con criminalidad y por fin terminaron com cuatro miembros detenidos.(AU)

"Debt on Me Head": A Qualitative Study of the Experience of Teenage Cannabis Users in Treatment.

BACKGROUND: Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug in most western countries. In Ireland, it now accounts for most new presentations to substance use treatment services. Cannabis use for most of these people commenced during adolescence. Although a significant amount of research has been conducted on the effects of cannabis on physical and mental health, less is known about the experiences of young cannabis users. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to understand more about the experience of young, treatment-seeking, cannabis users. METHODS: This descriptive qualitative study interviewed eight adolescents who were attending outpatient treatment services for cannabis misuse in Dublin, Ireland. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Six themes were identified incorporating the early onset of cannabis and heavy use, involvement in criminality including drug dealing to pay for cannabis, ambivalence, experience of treatment, and damage to relationships. These themes are discussed in light of emerging literature. CONCLUSION: Young cannabis users in treatment can clearly identify many negative aspects of their cannabis use but are particularly ambivalent toward cannabis. Reluctance to aim for abstinence is common.

Drug sellers' neutralizations of guiltless drug sales and avoidance of "drug dealer" identities.

BACKGROUND: Despite a wealth of empirical exploration on neutralization theory, several aspects of the theory remain underexplored. For instance, one task of neutralization research is to investigate whether and how neutralizations vary with offender characteristics. A second underexplored area is whether the neutralizations offenders present when directly asked about feelings of guilt are similar or dissimilar to those they have incorporated into their narrative identities described during interviews. A third underexplored issue is whether offenders that exhibit little guilt for committing mala prohibita crimes use neutralizations in a similar manner as those who do not express guilt for committing mala in se crimes. METHODS: The present study examines these questions by drawing from data collected from interviews with 33 active drug sellers from St. Louis, Missouri, USA and 30 active drug sellers from Atlanta, Georgia, USA. RESULTS: We find that these offenders' neutralizations vary by drug type and by differential access to resources. We also find that, in addition to the neutralizations they give when asked about guilt, these offenders also preemptively neutralize feelings of guilt by constructing identities counter to bad "drug dealers" throughout their storied identities. CONCLUSION: We conclude by suggesting that neutralizations vary by offender characteristics due to the differing background expectancies of offenders' social groups. We also suggest that neutralizing the repercussions of immoral actions is not always a static, monothematic technique. It is instead an active, complex, and interactional process that occurs as persons make sense of who they are and what they are doing. Finally, we argue that studies of neutralization theory relying on direct, standardized questions or the presentation of abstract vignettes may fail to capture a sizable part of the neutralization process among offenders.

How the U.S.-Mexico border influences adolescent substance use: Youth participatory action research using photovoice.

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study is to use Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) methods and Photovoice to identify the perceived environmental factors that influence substance use among adolescents living at the U.S.-Mexico border. METHODS: One academic and a local youth health coalition engaged in Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) using Photovoice and qualitative methods to examine the perceived factors influencing adolescent substance use in their border community. RESULTS: Identified novel risk factors for adolescent substance use on the border included the normalization of drug trafficking, normalization of substance use, and cross-border access to substances. Novel protective factors included living in a close-knit binational community and having strong binational family and social support systems. The findings also illustrate a nexus of 'factors' wherein risk and protective elements overlap. CONCLUSION: This study contributes to the broader literature on international border health and how living in a border space influences adolescent substance use. The examination of influential border-bound factors provides a more complete understanding of the experiences of youth living on the U.S.-Mexico border, and informs the field of the importance of considering the border experience for future prevention and risk reduction efforts with border adolescents.

Sellers' risk perceptions in public and private social media drug markets.

INTRODUCTION: From the early use of pagers and cellular phones to the darknet and smartphones, technological developments have facilitated drug deals in various ways, especially by altering time and space boundaries. Traditional drug market literature theorises about how physical markets, within which sellers act according to their risk perceptions and motivation, are led by supply, demand, and enforcement. However, there is an almost absolute research gap in understanding how this relates to digital markets and social media markets in particular. It is expected that the plasticity of technology makes digital markets highly mouldable so that the sellers are able to shape markets according to their use. RESEARCH AIM: The aim of the study is to describe and understand drug dealing on social media within the structure of existing markets. We aim to do so by analysing how drug sellers' risk perceptions and motivations form and are formed by social media technology. METHODS: We conducted a three-month digital ethnographic study on Facebook and Instagram in the five Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden), as well as 107 semi-structured qualitative interviews with sellers (2/3 of the sample) and buyers (1/3 of the sample) using online markets within the same countries. RESULTS: Drug dealing on social media varies according to the structure of the chosen media and users' risk perceptions and motivations. Two market forms are suggested: 1) public digital markets (e.g., Facebook groups and Instagram) allow sellers to expand their customer lists, but the risk is quite high, while 2) private digital markets are based on one-on-one communication and demand greater knowledge but are perceived as more secure. Sellers choose which media to use and how to use them based on perceived risk and, therefore, have a significant impact on the formation of social media drug markets.

How adolescents cope with food insecurity in Baltimore City: an exploratory study.

OBJECTIVE: To increase our understanding about food insecurity among urban adolescents, we conducted a qualitative study in Baltimore City with adolescents to: (i) explore how adolescents experience and cope with food insecurity; and (ii) identify community-based approaches or interventions for addressing food insecurity. DESIGN: A total of eight focus groups were conducted across six neighbourhoods. To gather sociodemographic characteristics and personal data on food insecurity, all consented adolescents completed a brief questionnaire. SETTING: Six purposively selected neighbourhoods in Baltimore City, USA. PARTICIPANTS: A total of fifty-three adolescents between the ages of 14 and 19 years participated in the study. RESULTS: Although half of our sample was classified as food insecure, everyone in the focus groups was aware of adolescents who engaged in risky behaviours to get money for food. Among girls, prostituting was the most commonly mentioned behaviour, whereas for boys, it was selling drugs or stealing to get money for food. Adolescents also described tremendous stigma associated with food insecurity and agreed that food insecurity has to be viewed within a broader set of economic challenges. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing food insecurity among adolescents in disadvantaged neighbourhoods should be a high priority for policy makers and practitioners. Current feeding programmes are not addressing the needs of adolescents; as a result, adolescents are at risk for a variety of harmful behaviours and outcomes, with long-term negative health and social consequences.

Ring and bring drug services: Delivery dealing and the social life of a drug phone.

BACKGROUND: Illegal drug dealers no longer compete for customers only through the quality of their products, but also in convenience and speed of delivery. This article investigates "ring and bring" drug dealing, and argues that a focus on dealers' use of mobile phones is useful for exploring current changes within retail level drug markets. METHODS: The article is based on 21 face-to-face in-depth interviews with active drug dealers in Denmark all of whom were involved in the delivery of drugs (mainly cannabis and cocaine) often to buyers' homes. RESULTS: Contrary to studies emphasising how drug dealers often take up new communication technologies with enthusiasm, the dealers in this study displayed a technological conservatist stance. Moreover, mobile phones have become key to dealers' construction of in-group hierarchies, and have led to retail level drug selling becoming more flexible, individualised and more of a service on par with other services in the consumer society. Finally, the increasing use of mobile phones has also created a situation where portfolios of drug customers, held on cell phone SIM cards, are today traded and sold alongside other commodities in the drug economy. CONCLUSION: We show how a social constructivist approach to technology can provide a more detailed and nuanced account of the socio-technical ensemble and the meaning-making processes giving shape to retail level "delivery dealing."

Prevalence and correlates of selling illicit cannabis among people who use drugs in Vancouver, Canada: A ten-year prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The illicit selling and use of cannabis is prevalent among marginalized people who use illicit drugs (PWUD). Given that participation in illicit drug markets has been previously associated with a range of health and social harms, we sought to examine the predictors of selling cannabis among PWUD in Vancouver, Canada, a setting with a de facto legalized cannabis market, on the eve of the planned implementation of legalized non-medical cannabis including measures to regulate the existing illicit market. METHODS: Multivariable generalized estimating equations (GEE) logistic regression was used to analyze longitudinal factors associated with selling illicit cannabis among three prospective cohorts of PWUD between September 2005 and May 2015. RESULTS: Among the 3258 participants included in this study, 328 (10.1%) reported selling illicit cannabis at baseline, and 46 (5.1%) initiated cannabis selling over the study period. In the multivariable analysis of the whole sample, factors significantly associated with selling cannabis included cannabis use (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 4.05), dealing other drugs (AOR = 3.87), being male (AOR = 1.83), experiencing violence (AOR = 1.40), non-medical prescription opioid use (AOR = 1.32), non-custodial involvement in the criminal justice system (AOR = 1.31), being stopped by police (AOR = 1.30), crack use (AOR = 1.25), homelessness (AOR = 1.23), age (AOR = 0.96 per year) and participation in sex work (AOR = 0.67) (all p < 0.05). The subanalyses indicated that dealing drugs other than cannabis, cannabis use, and non-custodial involvement in the criminal justice system were the only factors significantly associated with selling cannabis in all four subgroups. CONCLUSION: These findings support existing evidence indicating that selling illicit cannabis is often a survival-driven strategy to support the basic needs and substance use of some PWUD. Our findings suggest jurisdictions with planned or impending cannabis legalization and regulation should consider the vulnerability of PWUD when seeking to eradicate illicit cannabis markets, for example, in setting criminal penalties for selling cannabis outside of regulatory frameworks.

Trusting the source: The potential role of drug dealers in reducing drug-related harms via drug checking.

OBJECTIVES: Drug checking technologies (DCTs) have been implemented as a response to the ongoing opioid overdose epidemic. We examined the level of trust people who use drugs (PWUD) have in their drug dealers as well as their perspectives on the potential for drug dealers to use DCTs to provide knowledge of drug contents to their customers. METHODS: We conducted one-to-one qualitative semi-structured interviews with 20 PWUD in Vancouver, Canada's Downtown Eastside. Participants were purposively recruited from ongoing cohort studies of PWUD and were required to currently be using stimulants and/or opioids. RESULTS: Most participants discussed having a high level of trust for their drug dealers based on length of relationships, drug supply consistencies, and communication. Given this, participants did not identify drug checking as a priority. However, participants discussed a lower level of trust when buying drugs from an unfamiliar source. Participants also discussed how DCTs would provide knowledge to drug dealers about drug contents and how communicating test results to customers could be a risk reduction measure. Participants described privacy concerns that drug dealers might experience as well as the lack of concern that some drug dealers have about their drug supply. CONCLUSIONS: Future drug checking programming should consider ways to engage drug dealers to test their supplies and develop communication strategies to more accurately inform PWUD of drug contents and avert risks associated with using them. Additionally, drug policies that address the effects of criminalization should be considered to lessen potential barriers to DCT use by drug dealers.

Drug sourcing and motivations among a sample of people involved in the supply of pharmaceutical drugs in Australia.

BACKGROUND: The non-medical use (NMU) of pharmaceuticals is increasing internationally, along with mortality. Previous research indicates that end-users access pharmaceuticals through social networks, however little is known about supplier sources particularly outside the US. This study examined sourcing and motivations among a sample of people involved in pharmaceutical diversion and supply in Australia. METHODS: Semi-structured, telephone interviews were conducted with 51 people involved in supplying pharmaceuticals in the previous six months. Multi-stage recruitment involved the distribution of flyers to participants of two Australian drug-monitoring programs: the Ecstasy and related Drugs Reporting System (capturing regular psycho-stimulant users) and the Illicit Drug Reporting System (capturing people who regularly inject drugs), followed by a screening of interested participants. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and analysed using a mixed methods approach. First, correlates of drug sourcing and motivations were examined including demographics, frequency and quantity of supply. Second, thematic analysis of the qualitative data was undertaken on strategies for obtaining the drugs and motivating factors. RESULTS: Drug supplies were sourced from a variety of medical and non-medical sources, primarily legitimately obtained prescriptions (47%), friends or family (18%) and dealers (14%). Suppliers using medical sources were more likely to be unemployed/retired and reported supplying for therapeutic purposes, while suppliers using non-medical sources were more likely to be employed/students, earned higher incomes and reported supplying for recreational purposes. Those who sourced via doctor shopping (IRR = 47.5) and friends and family (IRR = 10.1) distributed higher quantities, while those who sourced legitimately obtained prescriptions (IRR = 0.1) and from illicit drug dealers (IRR = 0.0) distributed lower quantities. Similar proportions supplied for financial (65%) and altruistic (61%) reasons, however the latter supplied lower quantities (IRR = 0.1). CONCLUSION: This study offers novel insight into the diversion of pharmaceuticals from the supplier perspective. A nuanced policy approach is required to address varied supply practices by source and motive.

A glimpse into the underground market of melanotan.

Melanotan-I and melanotan-II are alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (a-MSH) analogues that can be purchased illicitly online with relative ease and are injected subcutaneously to stimulate a tan. Little is known about the use of these unregulated substances. An observational survey was posted to an online forum in which participants share their experiences using melanotan-I or melanotan-II. Users were asked to complete this voluntary, anonymous survey, which had questions focusing on motivation and hesitation for and against using melanotan, difficulty in acquiring it, and plans for continuing to use melanotan in the future.

The burgeoning recognition and accommodation of the social supply of drugs in international criminal justice systems: An eleven-nation comparative overview.

BACKGROUND: It is now commonly accepted that there exists a form of drug supply, that involves the non-commercial supply of drugs to friends and acquaintances for little or no profit, which is qualitatively different from profit motivated 'drug dealing proper'. 'Social supply', as it has become known, has a strong conceptual footprint in the United Kingdom, shaped by empirical research, policy discussion and its accommodation in legal frameworks. Though scholarship has emerged in a number of contexts outside the UK, the extent to which social supply has developed as an internationally recognised concept in criminal justice contexts is still unclear. METHODS: Drawing on an established international social supply research network across eleven nations, this paper provides the first assessment of social supply as an internationally relevant concept. Data derives from individual and team research stemming from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hong Kong, the Netherlands, England and Wales, and the United States, supported by expert reflection on research evidence and analysis of sentencing and media reporting in each context. In situ social supply experts addressed a common set of questions regarding the nature of social supply for their particular context including: an overview of social supply research activity, reflection on the extent that differentiation is accommodated in drug supply sentencing frameworks; evaluating the extent to which social supply is recognised in legal discourse and in sentencing practices and more broadly by e.g. criminal justice professionals in the public sphere. A thematic analysis of these scripts was undertaken and emergent themes were developed. Whilst having an absence of local research, New Zealand is also included in the analysis as there exists a genuine discursive presence of social supply in the drug control and sentencing policy contexts in that country. RESULTS: Findings suggest that while social supply has been found to exist as a real and distinct behaviour, its acceptance and application in criminal justice systems ranges from explicit through to implicit. In the absence of dedicated guiding frameworks, strong use is made of discretion and mitigating circumstances in attempts to acknowledge supply differentiation. In some jurisdictions, there is no accommodation of social supply, and while aggravating factors can be applied to differentiate more serious offences, social suppliers remain subject to arbitrary deterrent sentencing apparatus. CONCLUSION: Due to the shifting sands of politics, mood, or geographical disparity, reliance on judicial discretion and the use of mitigating circumstances to implement commensurate sentences for social suppliers is no longer sufficient. Further research is required to strengthen the conceptual presence of social supply in policy and practice as a behaviour that extends beyond cannabis and is relevant to users of all drugs. Research informed guidelines and/or specific sentencing provisions for social suppliers would provide fewer possibilities for inconsistency and promote more proportionate outcomes for this fast-growing group.

'Nice people doing shady things': Drugs and the morality of exchange in the darknet cryptomarkets.

BACKGROUND: An ethnographic analysis of drug-centred cryptomarket community and exchange, this article explores the embedded values around drug distribution and consumption within this setting. Drawing on our interviews with cryptomarket users, we analyze the ways in which users claim the cryptomarket as a space of morality, empathy, trust, reciprocity, knowledge transfer, harm reduction and self-limitation. The anthropological concept of the morality of exchange is central to our theoretical approach. METHODS: Between December 2014 and July 2017, nine interviews were undertaken with users of drug cryptomarkets. These were conducted in person, using Skype video calling, and using the encrypted 'self-erasing' chat app Wickr. The researchers also used overt non-participant observation (NPO) within the cryptomarket forum. This two-pronged approach - interviews and spending time within the community via NPO - enabled a thick description style of ethnographic analysis. RESULTS: Our research reveals online drug markets less as perfect markets (working to rules of supply and demand) and more as constructive communities of interest that perform and negotiate drug use and supply. We found that participation within these interest communities had practical impact such as changing the type of drug that users consume and the ways in which they participate in street drug supply. Significantly, these values and actions mediate the interface between online action and 'meatspace' (the offline world) and reinforce that the motivations and processes of internet activity are just as 'real' as offline action. CONCLUSION: We redefine the illicit drug focused cryptomarket as a place of exchange, mediation and reciprocity. Real-time knowledge transfer with the aim of harm reduction is one example of the impact of cryptomarket interaction. We caution that this is not a space of kinship and affinity: it is not without its scams, hackers and threats. It is, however, much more than a 'drug marketplace' and to understand how users themselves conceptualise this space is fruitful for any understanding of cryptomarkets. Cryptomarket exchange is a form of social action that is not restricted to its economic value for participants.

Examining social supply among nonmedical prescription stimulant users in the San Francisco Bay Area.

In the US, prescription stimulants are prescribed for a variety of conditions including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. Over the last two decades, dramatic increases in stimulant prescriptions have led to greater availability and increased risk for diversion and nonmedical use. Our own and other investigators' findings indicate that many drug "suppliers" do not fit into the traditional image of drug "dealers." These suppliers typically do not identify themselves as "dealers," but instead understand their drug distribution as sharing with people they know. Coomber and colleagues' (2007; 2013) concept of "social supply" raises the question: When friends supply or facilitate supply of drugs to friends, is this really dealing? Further, if dealing and supplying are distinct kinds of social transactions, should different types of criminal justice approaches be applied? Social supply extends our understanding of drug dealing as a complex social activity. In this article, we examine the issue of social supply among nonmedical users of prescription stimulants. We conducted a 36-month National Institute on Drug Abuse-funded project to conduct a qualitative, mixed methods study of 150 adult nonmedical prescription stimulant users in the San Francisco Bay Area. We explore intersecting factors, including life stage and social location, that contribute to decisions to use prescription stimulants nonmedically, motivations to use, knowledge about risks and benefits of prescription stimulant use, any adverse health or social consequences experienced, availability, acquisition and diversion of prescription stimulants, and differences in attitudes and behaviours. For this analysis, we rely on participants' narratives concerning prescription stimulant acquisition practices and how they understood these interactions, purchases, and exchanges with the suppliers of prescription stimulants in their social networks. The authors argue that acknowledging the distinction between social supply and "proper" drug dealing would redress the disparity between drug sharing and profiteering particularly regarding criminal sentencing.

Motivations for Selling Ecstasy among Young Adults in the Electronic Dance Music Club Culture in Brazil.

This article describes data on the motivations for selling ecstasy among young adults in the electronic dance music (EDM) club culture in Brazil. Individual interviews were conducted with 20 individuals recruited for their involvement in the EDM club scene. Eligible participants were aged 18-39 and reported ecstasy and/or LSD use one or more times in the past 90 days. Exclusion criteria included current treatment for drug/alcohol problems and cognitive impairment or clinically evident psychiatric disorder. Mean age was 22.92 (SD 2.77), 60% were male, 45% reported 12 or more years of education, 50% did not have a primary partner, 50% were living alone, and all had friends who also used ecstasy. Three main themes emerged: (1) "easy" transition from ecstasy user to seller; (2) desire to achieve popularity and fame; and (3) need to sell ecstasy to maintain the high cost of EDM club scene participation. This is one of the first studies of ecstasy sellers in Brazil. The results demonstrate the ease with which the participants transition from ecstasy user to seller. Given the potential health and social dangers associated with ecstasy use, public health campaigns to prevent ecstasy use and policy initiatives to limit the ecstasy supply are warranted.

The material, moral, and affective worlds of dealing and crime among young men entrenched in an inner city drug scene.

A large body of previous research has elucidated how involvement in drug dealing and crime among marginalized urban youth who use drugs is shaped by the imperatives of addiction and survival in the context of poverty. However, a growing body of research has examined how youth's involvement in these activities is shaped by more expansive desires and moralities. In this paper, we examine the material, moral, and affective worlds of loosely gang affiliated, street level dealing and crime among one group of young men in Vancouver, Canada. Drawing on longitudinal interviews with 44 young men from 2008 to 2016, and ethnographic fieldwork with a group of approximately 15 of those young men over the same time period, we argue that for these youth, dealing and crime were not solely about economic survival, or even the accrual of highly meaningful forms of "street capital" in the margins. Rather, as "regimes of living," dealing and crime also opened up new value systems, moral logics, and affects in relation to the tremendous risks, potential rewards, and crushing boredom of life in the margins. These activities were also understood as a way into deeply desired forms of social spatial belonging in the city, which had previously only been imagined. However, across time dealing and crime "embedded" young men in cycles of incarceration, destitution, addictions, and mental health crises that ultimately reinforced their exclusion-from legal employment, but also within the world of crime. The findings of this study underscore the importance of adopting a life course perspective in order to meaningfully address the harms associated with involvement in dealing and crime among youth in our setting.